by Cassandra Stafford, MS, SLP/L, ATP (speech-language pathologist and assistive technology professional); NWACS board member

reading time: 8 minutes

The views expressed in this post are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of NWACS. No endorsement by NWACS is implied regarding any device, manufacturer, resource, or strategy mentioned.

This is the second of three posts in this ‘Science of Literacy’ series. If you missed the first one, go read it here:

Literacy Instruction is for All

Literacy skills are life-changing. You cannot fully access and participate in your community unless you can read and write.

Literacy right #6 is the right to have teachers and other service providers who are knowledgeable about literacy instruction methods and principles.

Methods include but are not limited to instruction, assessment, and the technologies required to make literacy accessible to individuals with disabilities.
Principles include, but are not limited to, the beliefs that literacy is learned across places and time, and no person is too disabled to benefit from literacy learning opportunities.

Providers who are knowledgeable about literacy instruction. What do we need to know to be knowledgeable about reading instruction? We have decades of evidence from multiple disciplines to guide us. So let’s dig into the science of reading!

Disability doesn’t change what a learner needs to be taught.

The WHAT of reading instruction is the same for all learners, including those with diverse needs. It is in the HOW that we modify to accommodate the needs of disabled learners. Modify our instruction and/or modify how disabled learners show their understanding and skills.

Receptive - Expressive. Emergent to Conventional.

Communication involves both receptive and expressive skills. Generally, we understand before we express. But, it is really difficult to separate receptive language from expressive language.

Literacy (which is language in a text format) also involves both receptive and expressive skills. Reading is understanding language presented in text form. Writing is expressing ourselves through print-based language. Studies show that learning to read supports the development of writing skills and learning to write supports the development of reading skills.

When you hear the words ‘reading’ and ‘writing’, what images pop into your head? For most of us, our brains probably jump to how it looks when these skills are mastered. Opening a book, being able to read the words and understand the meaning. Sitting down with paper and pen or to a computer and putting thoughts into words for someone else to read. But just like communication skills can be emergent, so can literacy skills. Reading skills can be emergent or conventional. Writing skills can be emergent or conventional. Emergent literacy is everything that comes before and develops into conventional reading and writing.

Decoding vs. Encoding

Let’s talk about the word “decode”. We are going to see that reading is so much more than decoding text. But what does it mean to decode in reading? Decoding is the ability to see a word in print and be able to say it (either out loud or in your head). Conversely, “encoding” is the ability to say or hear a word and be able to spell it.

Five Essential Elements of Reading Instruction

The ‘science of reading’ is the compilation of research and evidence that outlines what we currently know about how people best learn to read. From this research, we know there are five essential elements (sometimes called “pillars”) that we must address in our reading instruction for all learners.

phonemic awareness
phonics
fluency
vocabulary
comprehension

The research also tells us that our instruction must be systematic and explicit.

systematic instruction: teach skills and concepts in a planned, logically progressive sequence (have a scope and sequence)

explicit instruction: directly teach skills and concepts

using repetition with variety
carefully scaffold learning in structured activities

To become proficient readers, learners need instruction in ALL the essential elements. We need to give ample attention to all the components! Hollis Scarborough (2001) conceptualized the “Reading Rope” as a way to illustrate the complexities of learning to read.

Image of the reading rope modified from Hollis Scarborough (2001).

The reading rope is a visual metaphor that helps us remember and visualize how all these skills combine and work together for skilled reading. This video from Zaner-Bloser gives a nice explanation of this model.

The Simple View of Reading (Gough & Runner, 1986) is another way of conceptualizing reading comprehension.

Decoding x Language Comprehension = Reading Comprehension

Notice that this formula is contained in Scarborough’s Reading Rope. Language comprehension strands weave together with word recognition (decoding) strands to produce skilled reading (reading comprehension).

To be a proficient reader, you need all the parts. Let’s take a closer look at the essential parts of reading instruction.

Alphabet knowledge is essential to learning to read.

Alphabet Knowledge is the basis for the first two pillars of reading instruction (phonemic awareness and phonics). Foundational reading skills include learning

the sounds of spoken words (phonemes) and
the letter or letter combinations (graphemes) that represent those sounds in print.

We need to learn the connections between sounds and letters. Learners need ample time to interact with letters and the sounds they make. There are several ways to know a letter. Learners need to be able to:

name the letter
distinguish the letter from other letters
know the shape of the letter (both upper- and lowercase)
know the sounds(s) the letter represents

For learners with significant disabilities, this may mean

learning how to use an alternative pencil (more on this in the next post)
lots of time and opportunities to learn to apply their alphabet knowledge to reading and writing tasks
practicing saying sounds in their head (use their inner voice)

Developing an inner voice (or "thinking voice") is important to reading instruction.

Inner voice is a key skill for the first two pillars of reading instruction with significantly disabled learners. So we need to teach them about their inner voice (or “thinking voice”) early. Teaching them to use their inner voice needs to start as soon as they start learning about the alphabet. The goal of reading instruction is for the learner to be able to read silently. And to understand what they have read. When we read silently, we use our inner voice. Being able to use an inner voice helps with reading fluency and comprehension.

Learners who can speak, typically first learn to read out loud. They say the sounds that go with letters out loud. They sound out words out loud. Over time, they move to using their inner voice (or reading silently). For learners who use AAC, using their inner voice must start sooner. We need to teach diverse communicators about their inner voice. Talk about what it is. Model how you use it. Remind them to use it during literacy instruction and when reading.

Pillar 1: Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness instruction develops the ability to identify and play with the sounds in words. This improves word reading and spelling skills. Blending or combining sounds helps us read words. Segmenting or breaking apart sounds helps us spell words.

Phonemes are the sounds that make up words. They are sounds, not letters. For example, ‘cat’ and ‘that’ each have three phonemes.

cat: /k/ /a/ /t/ that: /th/ /a/ /t/

Phonemic awareness tasks include being able to identify the different sounds in words. Identify all the sounds in the word (and how many there are), and also figure out what is the beginning sound, what is the ending sound, etc.

Working on blending sounds to form real words is another phonemic awareness task. For example, what word do these sounds make: /k/ /a/ /t/? (answer: cat)

Deleting, adding, substituting, and moving sounds in words are other ways of working on phonemic awareness tasks. For example:

that → at → cat → bat → tab

Some Key Ideas:

emphasize segmenting words into phonemes
use letters when teaching about phonemes
make connections to reading and writing
use manipulatives
use spelling to teach phonemes

Pillar 2: Phonics

Graphemes are the symbols (letters) used to represent phonemes (sounds). For example, ‘cat’ has three graphemes and ‘that’ has four graphemes.

cat: ‘c’, ‘a’, ‘t’ that: ‘t’, ‘h’, ‘a’, ‘t’

Phonics instruction teaches the relationship between letters and sounds. For example, the /k/ sound can be spelled with ‘c’, ‘k’, ‘ck’, and other ways.

Some Key Ideas:

phonics instruction should be explicit and systematic
phonics instruction is a means to an end (to be able to read connected text)

Phonemic awareness and phonics instruction are the keys to learning to decode. But they are never a total reading program without the next three pillars!

Pillar 3: Fluency

Reading fluency is being able to read text accurately, with automaticity, and with expression. It provides a bridge between word reading and comprehension.

Less fluent readers are working harder to decode the printed words. They have less capacity to focus on understanding what they are reading.

More fluent readers need to put less effort into word recognition. They can focus more on comprehension, or understanding and thinking about what they are reading.

Fluency comes with lots and lots of practice! Practice looks like repeated reading and guided repeated oral reading. Guided repeated oral reading means adding more support to repeated reading. Like modeling what fluent reading sounds like, telling them unfamiliar words, and having them read along.

Special educator Kate Ahern uses the UFLI Foundations curriculum with the AAC users she teaches. She uses it to address the phonemic awareness, phonics, and fluency “pillars”. See more about how she teaches these essential skills in this video (recorded pre-conference session from AAC in the Cloud 2023).

Note: the UFLI Foundations curriculum is just one example of a systematic and explicit curriculum that addresses the phonemic awareness, phonics, and fluency “pillars”

Pillar 4: Vocabulary

Vocabulary is important in word recognition and comprehension. Learners use words that are already in their vocabulary to help them recognize words they see in print. Vocabulary is important for learning to read as well as reading to learn. Learners need to understand the meanings of words they read to understand and learn from what they read.

There are four types of vocabulary!

listening vocabulary: words we understand when others are talking
speaking vocabulary: words we know how to use when communicating
reading vocabulary: words we understand when we see them in print
writing vocabulary: words we know how to use when we write

Some Key Ideas:

vocabulary should be taught directly
teaching word-learning strategies is also important

how to use a dictionary
word parts, root words
etc.

repeated exposure to new vocabulary is important
new words are learned more effectively in a rich context
restructuring vocabulary tasks can help with learning new vocabulary

rewriting definitions
writing sample sentences

active engagement with vocabulary improves learning

associate new words with known words
use new words in a sentence
match definitions to new words
use new words in different contexts
provide multiple exposures to new words

For a learner’s vocabulary to grow, they must come in contact with words outside of their current vocabulary. The number of words read directly impacts their vocabulary growth. This means that learners must be exposed to a lot of content. A LOT! Knowledge sticks to knowledge. We do not expect learners to “master” all the information they are exposed to. But it is easier to learn and remember something when they have had previous exposure to it. Over time, they will retain more and more information (knowledge). Learners need to be exposed to a wide variety of topics and information. History. Science. Everything!

Pillar 5: Comprehension

Comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading instruction. Reading fluency and vocabulary facilitate reading comprehension. The ability to make inferences beyond what is explicitly stated in the text is an important factor in comprehension. Knowledge of text structures also supports comprehension.

A big part of understanding what you read is having and using prior/background knowledge to make connections. Knowledge sticks to knowledge. Learners need to have some exposure to and familiarity with the topic to understand a text they are reading.

Reminder: The WHAT of all five essential components of reading instruction is the same for all learners, including those with diverse needs. It is in the HOW that we modify to accommodate the needs of disabled learners. Modify our instruction and/or modify how disabled learners show their understanding and skills.

My next article will focus on the science of writing! Reading and writing tap into similar skills. So reading instruction supports writing development. And writing instruction supports reading development. We MUST provide instruction for both. Check out the third post in this series to learn more!